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Racial discrimination - Wikipedia
Racial discrimination - Wikipedia
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1Boundary problems and related forms of discrimination
2Around the world
Toggle Around the world subsection
2.1Overall trends
2.2Discrimination against refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and internally displaced persons
2.3The Netherlands
2.4Africa
2.4.1Uganda
2.4.2Liberia
2.5United Kingdom
2.6United States
2.6.1Employment
2.6.2Housing
3Effects on health
Toggle Effects on health subsection
3.1Racism in healthcare system
4Welfare of Children
5Critical Consciousness in Youth and Racial Discrimination
6Reverse discrimination
Toggle Reverse discrimination subsection
6.1United States
6.1.1Perceptions
6.1.2Law
7See also
8References
9Further reading
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Racial discrimination
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Discrimination in basis of race and ethnicity
This article is about specific discriminatory actions and processes. For the broader concept, see Racism.
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Part of a series onDiscrimination
Forms
Institutional
Structural
Attributes
Age
Caste
Class
Dialect
Disability
Genetic
Hair texture
Height
Language
Looks
Mental disorder
Race / Ethnicity
Skin color
Scientific racism
Rank
Sex
Sexual orientation
Species
Size
Viewpoint
Social
Arophobia
Acephobia
Adultism
Anti-albinism
Anti-autism
Anti-homelessness
Anti-drug addicts
Anti-intellectualism
Anti-intersex
Anti-left handedness
Anti-Masonry
Antisemitism
Aporophobia
Audism
Biphobia
Clannism
Cronyism
Elitism
Ephebiphobia
Social determinants of health
Social determinants of health in poverty
Social determinants of mental health
Fatphobia
Gayphobia
Gerontophobia
Heterosexism
HIV/AIDS stigma
Homophobia
Leprosy stigma
Lesbophobia
Discrimination against men
Misandry
Misogyny
Nepotism
Pedophobia
Perpetual foreigner
Pregnancy
Reverse
Sectarianism
Supremacism
Black
White
Transphobia
Non-binary
Transmisogyny
Vegaphobia
Xenophobia
Religious
Ahmadiyya
Atheism
Baháʼí Faith
Buddhism
Catholicism
Christianity
post–Cold War era
Falun Gong
Hinduism
Persecution
Untouchability
Islam
Persecution
Jehovah's Witnesses
Judaism
Persecution
LDS or Mormon
Neopaganism
Eastern Orthodox
Oriental Orthodox
Protestantism
Rastafari
Shi'ism
Sufism
Zoroastrianism
Ethnic/national
Afghan
African
Albanian
Arab
Armenian
Asian
France
South Africa
United States
Assyrian
Azerbaijani
Black people
African Americans
China
South Africa
Bengali
Catalan
Chechen
Chinese
Croat
Filipino
Finnish
French
Georgian
Greek
Haitian
Hazara
Hispanic
Hungarian
Igbo
Indian
Indigenous people
Australia
Canada
United States
Iranian
Irish
Israeli
Italian
Japanese
Jewish
Korean
Kurdish
Lithuanian
Malay
Mexican
Middle Eastern
Mongolian
Pakistani
Palestinians
Pashtun
Polish
Quebec
Romani
Romanian
Russian
Serb
Slavic
Somali
Tatar
Thai
Turkish
Ukrainian
Uyghur
Venezuelan
Vietnamese
Manifestations
Anti-LGBT rhetoric
Blood libel
Bullying
Cancel culture
Capital punishment for homosexuality
Compulsory sterilization
Corrective rape
Counter-jihad
Cultural genocide
Defamation
Democide
Disability hate crime
Dog whistle
Economic
Education
Employment
Eliminationism
Enemy of the people
Ethnic cleansing
Ethnic conflict
Ethnic hatred
Ethnic joke
Ethnocide
Forced conversion
Freak show
Gay bashing
Gendercide
Genital modification and mutilation
Genocide
examples
Glass ceiling
Hate crime
LGBT
Hate group
Hate speech
Homeless dumping
Housing
Indian rolling
Intersectionality
Lavender scare
LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
List of people killed for being transgender
Lynching
Mortgage
Murder music
Native American mascots
Braves
Blackhawks
Chiefs
Occupational segregation
Persecution
Pogrom
Political repression
Purge
Racialization
Religious persecution
Religious terrorism
Religious violence
Religious war
Scapegoating
Segregation academy
Sexual harassment
Sex-selective abortion
Slut-shaming
Trans bashing
Victimisation
Violence against women
White flight
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Wife selling
Witch-hunt
Policies
Age of candidacy
Blood purity
Blood quantum
Crime of apartheid
Disabilities
Catholic
Jewish
Gender pay gap
Gender roles
Gerontocracy
Gerrymandering
Ghetto benches
Internment
Jewish quota
Law for Protection of the Nation
MSM blood donation restrictions
Nonpersons
Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
One-drop rule
Racial quota
Racial segregation
Jim Crow laws
Nuremberg Laws
Racial steering
Redlining
Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
Segregation
age
racial
religious
sexual
Social exclusion
Sodomy law
State atheism
State religion
Ugly law
Voter suppression
Countermeasures
Affirmative action
Anti-discrimination law
Cultural assimilation
Cultural pluralism
Diversity training
Empowerment
Fat acceptance movement
Feminism
Fighting Discrimination
Hate speech laws by country
Human rights
Intersex human rights
LGBT rights
Masculism
Multiculturalism
Nonviolence
Racial integration
Reappropriation
Self-determination
Social integration
Toleration
Related topics
Allophilia
Amatonormativity
Bias
Christian privilege
Civil liberties
Dehumanization
Diversity
Ethnic penalty
Eugenics
Figleaf
Heteronormativity
Internalized oppression
Intersectionality
Male privilege
Masculism
Medical model of disability
autism
Multiculturalism
Net bias
Neurodiversity
Oikophobia
Oppression
Police brutality
Political correctness
Polyculturalism
Power distance
Prejudice
Prisoner abuse
Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
Racism by country
Religious intolerance
Second-generation gender bias
Snobbery
Social exclusion
Social identity threat
Social model of disability
Social stigma
Speciesism
Stereotype
threat
The talk
White privilege
vte
It has been suggested that this article be merged into Racism. (Discuss) Proposed since March 2024.
Racial discrimination is any discrimination against any individual on the basis of their race, ancestry, ethnicity, and/or skin color and hair texture.[1][2][3][4][5] Individuals can discriminate by refusing to do business with, socialize with, or share resources with people of a certain group. Governments can discriminate explicitly in law, for example through policies of racial segregation, disparate enforcement of laws, or disproportionate allocation of resources. Some jurisdictions have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit the government or individuals from being discriminated based on race (and sometimes other factors) in various circumstances. Some institutions and laws use affirmative action to attempt to overcome or compensate for the effects of racial discrimination. In some cases, this is simply enhanced recruitment of members of underrepresented groups; in other cases, there are firm racial quotas. Opponents of strong remedies like quotas characterize them as reverse discrimination, where members of a dominant or majority group are discriminated against.
Boundary problems and related forms of discrimination[edit]
See also: Discrimination based on nationality
Racial boundaries can involve many factors (such as ancestry, physical appearance, national origin, language, religion, and culture), and can be set in law by governments, or may depend on local cultural norms.
Discrimination based on skin color,(measured for example on the Fitzpatrick scale) or hair texture (measured for example on a scale from 1a to 4c)[5][6] is closely related to racial discrimination, as skin color and hair texture are often used as a proxy for race in everyday interactions, and is one factor used by legal systems that apply detailed criteria. For example, the Population Registration Act, 1950 was used to enforce the apartheid system in South Africa, and Brazil has set up boards to assign a racial category to people for the purpose of enforcing racial quotas.[7] Because of genetic variation, skin color, and other features of physical appearance can vary considerably even among siblings. Some children with the same parents either self-identify or are identified by others as being of different races. In some cases, the same person is identified as a different race on a birth certificate versus a death certificate. Different rules (such as hypodescent vs. hyperdescent) classify the same people differently, and for various reasons some people "pass" as a member of a different race than they would otherwise be classified in, possibly avoiding legal or interpersonal discrimination.
A given race is sometimes defined as a set of ethnicities from populations in neighboring geographic areas (such as a continent like Australia or a subcontinental region like South Asia) that are typically similar in appearance. In such cases, racial discrimination can occur because someone is of an ethnicity defined as outside that race, or ethnic discrimination (or ethnic hatred, ethnic conflict, and ethnic violence) can occur between groups who consider each other to be the same race. Discrimination based on caste is similar; because caste is hereditary, people of the same caste are usually considered to be of the same race and ethnicity.
A person's national origin (the country in which they were born or have citizenship) is sometimes used in determining a person's ethnicity or race, but discrimination based on national origin can also be independent of race (and is sometimes specifically addressed in anti-discrimination laws). Language and culture are sometimes markers of national origin and can prompt instances of discrimination based on national origin. For example, someone of a South Asian ethnicity who grew up in London, speaks British English with a London accent, and whose family has assimilated to British culture might be treated more favorably than someone of the same ethnicity who is a recent immigrant and speaks Indian English. Such a difference in treatment might still informally be described as a form of racism, or more precisely as xenophobia or anti-immigrant sentiment.
In countries where migration, unification, or breakup has occurred relatively recently, the process of ethnogenesis may complicate the determination of both ethnicity and race and is related to personal identity or affiliation. Sometimes the ethnicity of immigrants in their new country is defined as their national origin, and span multiple races. For example, the 2015 Community Survey of the United States Census accepted identification as Mexican Americans of any race (for example including Native Americans from Mexico, descendants of Africans transported to New Spain as enslaved people, and descendants of Spanish colonists). In surveys taken by the Mexican government, the same people would have been described as indigenous, black, or white (with a large number of people unclassified who might be described as Mestizo). The U.S. census asks separate questions about Hispanic and Latino Americans to distinguish language from racial identity. Discrimination based on being Hispanic or Latino does occur in the United States and might be considered a form of racial discrimination if "Hispanic" or "Latino" are considered a new racial category derived from ethnicities which formed after the independence of the former colonies of the Americas. Many statistical reports apply both characteristics, for example comparing Non-Hispanic whites to other groups.
When people of different races are treated differently, decisions about how to treat a particular person raise the question of which racial classification that person belongs to. For example, definitions of whiteness in the United States were used before the civil rights movement for the purpose of immigration and the ability to hold citizenship or be enslaved. If a race is defined as a set of ethnolinguistic groups, then common language origin can be used to define the boundaries of that group. The status of Finns as white was challenged on the grounds that the Finnish language is Uralic rather than Indo-European, purportedly making the Finns of the Mongoloid race. The common American notion that all people of geographically European ancestry and of light skin are "white" prevailed for Finns, and other European immigrants like Irish Americans and Italian Americans whose whiteness was challenged and who faced interpersonal if not legal discrimination. American and South African laws which divided the population into whites from Europe and blacks from sub-Saharan Africa often caused problems of interpretation when dealing with people from other areas, such as the rest of the Mediterranean Basin, Asia, North Africa, or even Native Americans, with classification as non-white usually resulting in legal discrimination. (Some Native American tribes have treaty rights which grant privileges rather than disadvantages, though these were often negotiated on unfavorable terms.) Though as an ethno-religious group they often face religious discrimination, the whiteness of all Jews was also challenged in the United States, with attempts to classify them as Asiatic (Palestine being in western Asia) or Semitic (which would also include Arabs). The actual ancestry of most Jewish people is more varied than simply ancient Hebrew tribes. As the Jewish diaspora spread across Europe and Africa over time many Jewish ethnic divisions arose, resulting in Jews who identify as white, black, and other races. The reunification of diverse populations in modern Israel has led to some problems of racial discrimination against dark-skinned Jews by light-skinned Jews.
Around the world[edit]
Overall trends[edit]
A 2013 analysis of World Values Survey data by The Washington Post looked at the fraction of people in each country that indicated they would prefer not to have neighbours from a differing race. It ranged from below 5% in Australia, New Zealand, and many countries in the Americas, to 51.4% in Jordan; Europe had wide variation, from below 5% in the UK, France, Norway, and Sweden, to 22.7% in Germany.[8]
More than 30 years of field experimental studies have found significant levels of discrimination against people of color in labor, housing, and product markets in 10 countries.[9]
Discrimination against refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and internally displaced persons[edit]
Around the world, refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and internally displaced persons have been the victims of racial discrimination, racist attacks, xenophobia and ethnic and religious intolerance.[10] According to the Human Right Watch, "racism is both a cause and a product of forced displacement, and an obstacle to its solution."[10]
With the influx of refugees to Europe in 2010, media coverage shaped public opinion and created hostility towards refugees.[11] Prior to that the European Union had started implementing the hotspot system, which categorized people them as either asylum seekers or economic migrants, and Europe's patrolling of its southern borders between 2010 and 2016 intensified, resulting in deals with Turkey and Libya.[11][12]
The Netherlands[edit]
A study conducted in the Netherlands and published in 2013 found significant levels of discrimination against job applicants with Arabic-sounding names.[13]
Africa[edit]
Main articles: Zanzibar Revolution and Racism in Africa
The British colonial impact greatly affected the cultures of African society but the differences in the countries like Nigeria remain as close to tradition compared to countries like South Africa. American racism also plays a part that escalates racism in Nigeria but American racism ideas influencing African Cultures. The racism that was developed by the influence of colonization and American influenced there to create levels of power based on racism. Racism in African cultures is connected to the opportunities received in life, virus susceptibility, and tribal traditions. For example, in the north, an indirect policy of rule settled a new way of life between the colonizing government and the Fulani- Hausa ruling class. Because of this the North falls behind the South and West on education development which causes racial malignity.
[14]
Uganda[edit]
While Uganda was under Idi Amin's rule, there was a policy to replace Asians and white people with blacks. Idi Amin was also an anti Semitic person.[15]
Liberia[edit]
The constitution of Liberia renders non-blacks ineligible for citizenship.[16]
United Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Racism in the United Kingdom
A 2023 University of Cambridge survey which featured the largest sample of Black people in Britain found that 88% had reported racial discrimination at work, 79% believed the police unfairly targeted black people with stop and search powers and 80% definitely or somewhat agreed that racial discrimination was the biggest barrier to academic attainment for young Black students.[17]
United States[edit]
Main article: Racial discrimination in the United States
With regard to employment, multiple audit studies have found strong evidence of racial discrimination in the United States' labor market, with magnitudes of employers' preferences of white applicants found in these studies ranging from 50% to 240%. Other such studies have found significant evidence of discrimination in car sales, home insurance applications, provision of medical care, and hailing taxis.[18] There is some debate regarding the method used to signal race in these studies.[19][20]
Employment[edit]
Racial discrimination in the workplace falls into two basic categories:
Disparate Treatment: An employer's policies discriminate based upon any immutable racial characteristic, such as skin, eye or hair color, and certain facial features;
Disparate Impact: Although an employer may not intend to discriminate based on racial characteristics, its policies nonetheless have an adverse effect based upon race.
Discrimination may occur at any point in the employment process, including pre-employment inquiries, hiring practices, compensation, work assignments and conditions, privileges granted to employees, promotion, employee discipline and termination.[21]
Researchers Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, at the University of Chicago and MIT found in a 2004 study, that there was widespread racial discrimination in the workplace. In their study, candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" were 50% more likely than those whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black" to receive callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (e.g., Jim Crow laws, etc.)[22]
Devah Pager, a sociologist at Princeton University, sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, finding that black applicants received callbacks or job offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.[23][24] Another recent audit by UCLA sociologist S. Michael Gaddis examines the job prospects of black and white college graduates from elite private and high-quality state higher education institutions. This research finds that blacks who graduate from an elite school such as Harvard have about the same prospect of getting an interview as whites who graduate from a state school such as UMass Amherst.[25]
A 2001 study of workplace evaluation in a large U.S. company showed that black supervisors rate white subordinates lower than average and vice versa.[26]
Perry and Pickett's (2016, as cited in Heberle et al., 2020) research concluded that unemployment rates are higher for blacks and Latinos than for whites.[27][28]
Housing[edit]
Main article: Housing discrimination in the United States
Multiple experimental audit studies conducted in the United States have found that blacks and Hispanics experience discrimination in about one in five and one in four housing searches, respectively.[18]
A 2014 study also found evidence of racial discrimination in an American rental apartment market.[29]
Researchers found in contrast to White families, families of color were led to obtain housing in poor, low-quality communities due to discrimination during the home-buying process.[30][28]
Persons affected by Homelessness also show a large disparity with more individuals being minorities in the United States. We Can Now is a Texas-based nonprofit that serves these people.[31]
Effects on health[edit]
Main article: Race and health
Studies have shown an association between reported racial discrimination and adverse physical and mental health outcomes.[32] This evidence has come from multiple countries, including the United States,[33][34][35][36] the United Kingdom,[37] and New Zealand.[38]
Racism in healthcare system[edit]
Racial bias exists in the medical field affecting the way patients are treated and the way they are diagnosed. There are instances where patients’ words are not taken seriously, an example would be the recent case with Serena Williams. After the birth of her daughter via C-section, the tennis player began to feel pain and shortness of breath. It took her several times to convince the nurse they actually took her self-said symptoms seriously. Had she not been persistent and demanded a CT scan, which showed a clot resulting in blood thinning, Williams might have not been alive.[39] This is just one of hundreds of cases where systemic racism can affect women of color in pregnancy complications.[40]
One of the factors that lead to higher mortality rates amongst black mothers is the poorly conditioned hospitals and lack of standard healthcare facilities.[41] Along with having deliveries done in underdeveloped areas, the situation becomes complicated when the pain dealt by patients are not taken seriously by healthcare providers. Pain heard from patients of color are underestimated by doctors compared to pain told by patients who are white[42] leading them to misdiagnose.
Many say that the education level of people affect whether or not they admit to healthcare facilities, leaning to the argument that people of color purposefully avoid hospitals compared to white counterparts[citation needed] however, this is not the case. Even Serena Williams, a well-known athlete, was not taken seriously when she described her pain. It is true that the experiences of patients in hospital settings influence whether or not they return to healthcare facilities. Black people are less likely to admit to hospitals however those that are admitted have longer stays than white people[43]
The longer hospitalization of black patients does not improve care conditions, it makes it worse,[44] especially when treated poorly by faculty. Not a lot of minorities are admitted into hospitals and those that are receive poor conditioned treatment and care. This discrimination results in misdiagnosis and medical mistakes that lead to high death rates.
Although the Medicaid program was passed to ensure African Americans and other minorities received the healthcare treatment they deserved and to limit discrimination in hospital facilities, there still seems to be an underlying cause for the low number of black patients admitted to hospitals, like not receiving the proper dosage of medication.[citation needed] Infant mortality rates and life expectancies of minorities are much lower than that of white people in the United States. Illnesses like cancer and heart diseases are more prevalent in minorities, which is one of the factors for the high mortality rate in the group.[45] however are not treated accordingly.
Although programs like Medicaid exists to support minorities, there still seems to be a large number of people who are not insured. This financial drawback discourages people in the group to go to hospitals and doctors offices.[45]
Financial and cultural influences can impact the way patients are treated by their healthcare providers. When doctors have a bias on a patient, it can lead to the formation of stereotypes, impacting the way they view their patient's data and diagnosis, affecting the treatment plan they implement.[45]
Welfare of Children[edit]
The topic of racial discrimination appears in discussion concerning children, and adolescents. Amongst the number of theories evaluating how children come to understand social identities, research presumes that social and cognitive developmental changes influence children's perspectives regarding their own racial/ethnic identities and children develop a greater understanding of how their race/ethnicity can be perceived by the greater society.[46]
A study led by Benner et al. (2018) analyzes a combination of previous studies indicating an existing relationship between racial discrimination and well-being, more specifically, in regards to mental health, behaviors, and academic performance of adolescents ranging from early adolescence (10-13) to late adolescence (17 and older). While it includes Asian, African descent, and Latino populations, this study also speculates the variances amongst the racial groups and other differences contributed by intersectionality. To investigate these relationships, the researchers examined data containing reports of racial discrimination from children, which served as a significant tool to further explore these ideas. In addition they analyzed the relationship between racial discrimination and aspects of well-being (e.g., self-esteem, substance abuse, student engagement) by organizing these components into broader categories of youth development: mental health, behavioral conditions and academic success. Subsequently, the results show a relationship between racial discrimination and negative outcomes relating to youth wellness across all three categories. Moreover, while examining differences among racial groups, children of Asian and Latino descent were found to be most at risk for mental health development, and Latino children, for academic success.
Racial discrimination affects about 90% of black adolescents, impacting their personal, social, psychological, and academic well-being. It leads to heightened stress, lowered self-esteem, and decreased academic performance. Creating inclusive educational environments with specialized support is crucial for their holistic development amid such challenges.[47]
Although the studies’ results correlate reported racial discrimination with outcomes to well-being, this does not conclude that one or more racial groups experience greater discrimination than other racial groups. Other factors may have contributed to the relationships’ findings. For example, evidence of a weaker relationship between racial discrimination and well-being in children of African descent may be linked to parent-guided socialization practices to help children cope with racial discrimination, or possibly lack of research concerning the severity of discrimination. Also, researchers speculate the meaningful ways intersectionality can play a role in variances of discrimination. Ultimately, they conclude that further studies to examine racial discrimination are necessary to provide a more comprehensive approach in determining effective support systems for children.[46]
A growing number of studies are researching the differences into the mental health of children of different nationalities and races.[48]
Critical Consciousness in Youth and Racial Discrimination[edit]
When a person is conscious of their privilege, mindful of oppression and discrimination, and when they address and counteract these injustices, they are expressing critical consciousness.[28] Additionally, critical consciousness can grow in individuals as a result of inequalities they may face such as racial discrimination.[49][28]
The researchers, Heberle, Rapa, and Farago (2020), conducted a systematic review of research literature on the concept critical consciousness. The study focused on 67 qualitative and quantitative studies regarding the effects of critical consciousness in youth since 1998. For example, one of the studies included in the report by Ngo (2017), studied an extracurricular program that analyzed the racial discrimination faced by Hmong adolescents and the exploration of critical consciousness participation in theater. The non-scholastic theater program encouraged this group of students to explore their identities through the injustices they faced and to fight against the oppression and racial discrimination they experienced.[50][28]
Critical consciousness can be used as a tool to fight against racial discrimination. Heberle et al. (2020) argued that a decrease in racial discrimination can happen when White youth are aware of differences in groups and injustices due to their critical consciousness. They might change their thinking by fostering antiracist beliefs and having awareness of their own White privilege.[28]
Reverse discrimination[edit]
See also: Reverse discrimination
Reverse discrimination is a term for allegations that the member of a dominant or majority group has suffered discrimination for the benefit of a minority or historically disadvantaged group.
United States[edit]
In the United States, courts have upheld race-conscious policies when they are used to promote a diverse work or educational environment.[51][52] Some critics have described those policies as discriminating against white people. In response to arguments that such policies (e.g. affirmative action) constitute discrimination against whites, sociologists note that the purpose of these policies is to level the playing field to counteract discrimination.[53][54]
Perceptions[edit]
A 2016 poll found that 38% of US citizens thought that Whites faced a lot of discrimination. Among Democrats, 29% thought there was some discrimination against Whites in the United States, while 49% of Republicans thought the same.[55] Similarly, another poll conducted earlier in the year found that 41% of US citizens believed there was "widespread" discrimination against whites.[56] There is evidence that some people are motivated to believe they are the victims of reverse discrimination because the belief bolsters their self-esteem.[57]
Law[edit]
In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits all racial discrimination based on race.[58] Although some courts have taken the position that a white person must meet a heightened standard of proof to prove a reverse-discrimination claim, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) applies the same standard to all claims of racial discrimination without regard to the victim's race.[58]
See also[edit]
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
Psychological impact of discrimination on health
Racial inequality
Racism
References[edit]
^ Amutah, C.; Greenidge, K.; Mante, A.; Munyikwa, M.; Surya, S. L.; Higginbotham, E.; Jones, D. S.; Lavizzo-Mourey, R.; Roberts, D.; Tsai, J.; Aysola, J. (March 2021). Malina, D. (ed.). "Misrepresenting Race — The Role of Medical Schools in Propagating Physician Bias". The New England Journal of Medicine. Massachusetts Medical Society. 384 (9): 872–878. doi:10.1056/NEJMms2025768. ISSN 1533-4406. PMID 33406326. S2CID 230820421.
^ Gannon, Megan (5 February 2016). "Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue". Scientific American. ISSN 0036-8733. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 1 March 2023.
^ Dr. Deen Dayal (15 June 2018). Complexion Based Discrimination: Global Insights. Notion Press. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-64324-232-3.
^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner. United Nations. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
^ a b Dabiri, Emma (2020). Don't touch my hair. Penguin history. UK USA Canada Ireland Australia India New Zealand South Africa: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-198628-9.
^ "What Are the Four Types of Hair?". MedicineNet. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
^ For Affirmative Action, Brazil Sets Up Controversial Boards To Determine Race
^ "A fascinating map of the world's most and least racially tolerant countries". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-08-16.
^ Riach, P. A.; Rich, J. (November 2002). "Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place". The Economic Journal. 112 (483): F480–F518. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.417.9100. doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00080. S2CID 19024888. Controlled experiments, using matched pairs of bogus transactors, to test for discrimination in the marketplace have been conducted for over 30 years, and have extended across 10 countries. Significant, persistent, and pervasive levels of discrimination have been found against non-whites and women in labor, housing, and product markets.
^ a b "HRW: Refugees, Asylum seekers, Migrants and Internally Displaced Persons". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
^ a b "The refugee 'crisis' showed Europe's worst side to the world | Hsiao-Hung Pai". The Guardian. 2020-01-01. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
^ Karadağ, Sibel (2019-04-18). "Extraterritoriality of European borders to Turkey: an implementation perspective of counteractive strategies". Comparative Migration Studies. 7 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/s40878-019-0113-y. ISSN 2214-594X. S2CID 150384637.
^ Blommaert, L.; Coenders, M.; van Tubergen, F. (19 December 2013). "Discrimination of Arabic-Named Applicants in the Netherlands: An Internet-Based Field Experiment Examining Different Phases in Online Recruitment Procedures". Social Forces. 92 (3): 957–82. doi:10.1093/sf/sot124. hdl:2066/129904. S2CID 145446149.
^ Van Den Berghe, Pierre L. (1973). Power and Privilege at an African University (1973 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138: Schenkman Publishing Compani Inc. p. 215. ISBN 9780870739682.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ "When Idi Amin expelled 50,000 'Asians' from Uganda". 4 August 2019.
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Further reading[edit]
Library resources about Racial discrimination
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Arrow, Kenneth J. (Spring 1998). "What Has Economics to Say about Racial Discrimination?". The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12 (2): 91–100. doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.91. JSTOR 2646963.
Saini, Angela (2019). Superior: The Return of Race Science. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-7691-0.
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DISCRIMINATIONAFP/Getty Images
Back to what we do
Overview
Discrimination strikes at the very heart of being human. It is harming someone’s rights simply because of who they are or what they believe. Discrimination is harmful and perpetuates inequality.
We all have the right to be treated equally, regardless of our race, ethnicity, nationality, class, caste, religion, belief, sex, gender, language, sexual orientation, gender identity, sex characteristics, age, health or other status. Yet all too often we hear heartbreaking stories of people who suffer cruelty simply for belonging to a “different” group from those in positions of privilege or power.
Discrimination occurs when a person is unable to enjoy his or her human rights or other legal rights on an equal basis with others because of an unjustified distinction made in policy, law or treatment. Amnesty International’s work is rooted in the principle of non-discrimination. Working with communities across the world, we challenge discriminatory laws and practices to ensure all people can enjoy their rights on an equal basis.
Here are 5 ways to call out racism & hate. pic.twitter.com/dt1oDiGVDy— Amnesty International (@amnesty) September 5, 2019
WHAT DRIVES DISCRIMINATION?KEY FORMS OF DISCRIMINATIONCase study: Menstruation and the taboos around itCase study: Fighting to improve accessibility in KyrgyzstanTHE SOLUTION: WHAT IS AMNESTY CALLING FOR?PreviousNext
LGBTI RIGHTS
WOMEN’S RIGHTS
RAcial Justice
WHAT DRIVES DISCRIMINATION?
At the heart of all forms of discrimination is prejudice based on concepts of identity, and the need to identify with a certain group. This can lead to division, hatred and even the dehumanization of other people because they have a different identity.
In many parts of the world, the politics of blame and fear is on the rise. Intolerance, hatred and discrimination is causing an ever-widening rift in societies. The politics of fear is driving people apart as leaders peddle toxic rhetoric, blaming certain groups of people for social or economic problems.
Some governments try to reinforce their power and the status quo by openly justifying discrimination in the name of morality, religion or ideology. Discrimination can be cemented in national law, even when it breaks international law – for example, the criminalization of abortion which denies women, girls and pregnant people the health services only they need. Certain groups can even be viewed by the authorities as more likely to be criminal simply for who they are, such as being poor, indigenous or black.
SOME KEY FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION
Racial and ethnic discrimination
Racism affects virtually every country in the world. It systematically denies people their full human rights just because of their colour, race, ethnicity, descent (including caste) or national origin. Racism unchecked can fuel large-scale atrocities such as the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and more recently, apartheid and ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya people in Myanmar.
In India, members of the Dalit community are targeted, by members of dominant castes, for a range of human rights abuses. These crimes, which include gang rapes, killings and the destruction of their homes, often go uninvestigated by the police because of discriminatory attitudes which do not take crimes against Dalits seriously.
Amnesty International has also documented widespread discrimination faced by millions of Roma in Europe, including the threat of forced evictions, police harassment and the segregation of Roma children in school.
Discrimination against non-nationals, sometimes known as xenophobia
but discrimination against non-nationals is frequently based on racism or notions of superiority, and is often fuelled by politicians looking for scapegoats for social or economic problems in a country.
Since 2008, South Africa has experienced several outbreaks of violence against refugees, asylum seekers and migrants from other African countries, including killings, and looting or burning of shops and businesses. In some instances, the violence has been inflamed by the hate-filled rhetoric of politicians who have wrongly labelled foreign nationals “criminals” and accused them of burdening the health system.
Discrimination has also been a feature of the response of authorities to refugees and asylum seekers in other parts of the world. Many people in countries receiving refugees and asylum seekers view the situation as a crisis with leaders and politicians exploiting these fears by promising, and in some cases enacting, abusive and unlawful policies.
For example, Hungary passed a package of punitive laws in 2018, which target groups that the government has identified as supporting refugees and migrants. The authorities have also subjected refugees and asylum seekers to violent push-backs and ill-treatment and imposed arbitrary detention on those attempting to enter Hungarian territory.
We at Amnesty International disagree that it is a crisis of numbers. This is a crisis of solidarity. The causes that drive families and individuals to cross borders, and the short-sighted and unrealistic ways that politicians respond to them, are the problem.
KEY FACTS
7676 countries criminalize sexual acts between adults of the same sex.
10In 10 countries the maximum sentence for sexual acts between same sex adults is the death penalty.
4In Canada, Indigenous women are x4 more likely to be murdered than other women.
1M+Over one million people worldwide campaigned successfully for the release of Meriam Yehya Ibrahim in 2014. A Sudanese Christian sentenced to death by hanging for abandoning her religion.
Discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people
Everywhere in the world, people face discrimination because of who they love, who they are attracted to and who they are. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people risk being unfairly treated in all areas of their lives, whether it’s in education, employment, housing or access to health care, and they may face harassment and violence.
Some countries punish people for their sexual orientation or their gender identity with jail or even death. For example, in October 2019, Uganda’s Ethics and Integrity Minister announced that the government was planning to introduce the death penalty for consensual same-sex sexual acts.
In 2019, Amnesty International documented how gay and trans soldiers in South Korea face violence, harassment and pervasive discrimination due to the criminalization of consensual sex between men in the military; and examined the barriers to accessing gender-affirming treatments for transgender individuals in China. We also campaigned to allow Pride events to take place in countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and Ukraine.
It is extremely difficult, and in most cases, impossible for LGBTI people to live their lives freely and seek justice for abuses when the laws are not on their side. Even when they are, there is strong stigma and stereotyping of LGBTI identities that prevents them from living their lives as equal members of society or accessing rights and freedoms that are available to others. That’s why LGBTI activists campaign relentlessly for their rights: whether it’s to be free from discrimination to love who they want, have their gender legally recognized or to just be protected from the risk of assault and harassment.
See here for more information about Amnesty International’s work on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex rights.
©ODTU LGBTI+A METU student holding a rainbow flag at the pride taking place at the university campus 0n 5 November 2019, Ankara, Turkey.
Learn more about what Amnesty is doing to defend LGBTI rights
learn more about LGBTI rights
Gender discrimination
In many countries, in all regions of the world, laws, policies, customs and beliefs exist that deny women and girls their rights.
By law, women cannot dress as they like (Saudi Arabia, Iran) or work at night (Madagascar) or take out a loan without their husband’s signature (Equatorial Guinea). In many countries, discriminatory laws place limits on a woman’s right to divorce, own property, exercise control over her own body and enjoy protection from harassment.
In the ongoing battle for justice, hundreds of thousands of women and girls take to the streets to claim their human rights and demand gender equality. In the USA, Europe and Japan, women protested against misogyny and abuse as part of the #MeToo marches. In Argentina, Ireland and Poland, women demonstrated to demand a stop to oppressive abortion laws. In Saudi Arabia, they called for an end to the driving ban, and in Iran, they demanded an end to forced hijab (veiling).
All over the world, women and girls have been at the forefront of demands for change.
Yet despite the stratospheric rise of women’s activism, the stark reality remains that many governments around the world openly support policies, laws and customs that subjugate and suppress women.
Globally, 40% of women of childbearing age live in countries where abortion remains highly restricted or inaccessible in practice even when allowed by law, and some 225 million do not have access to modern contraception.
Research by Amnesty International confirmed that while social media platforms allow people to express themselves by debating, networking and sharing , companies and governments have failed to protect users from online abuse, prompting many women in particular to self-censor or leave platforms altogether.
However, social media has given more prominence in some parts of the world to women’s calls for equality in the workplace, an issue highlighted in the calls to narrow the gender pay gap, currently standing at 23% globally. Women worldwide are not only paid less, on average, than men, but are more likely to do unpaid work and to work in informal, insecure and unskilled jobs. Much of this is due to social norms that consider women and their work to be of lower status.
Gender-based violence disproportionately affects women, yet it remains a human rights crisis that politicians continue to ignore.
Protesters demonstrate against the release of the ‘La Manada’ (Wolf Pack) gang members outside the Minister of Justice in Madrid, Spain.
Learn more about what Amnesty is doing to protect women’s rights
learn more about women’s rights
Anup Subedi
Case study: Menstruation and the taboos around it
“That time of the month”, “Aunt Flo”, “crimson wave”. In many parts of the world, the stigma around menstruation goes far beyond euphemisms. Trying to change attitudes has resulted in some activists being arrested or interrogated for taking a stand.
Samikshya Koirala, from Nepal, got her period for the first time at the age of 11. Not only was she banished from home for five days, but she was also forbidden from touching male members of her family for 11 days and was not allowed to enter the kitchen for 19 days.
She’s now part of an Amnesty International student group, which aims to reverse negative attitudes around menstruation.
“We’re making videos, hosting rallies and running community programmes in rural areas for boys and girls. When we hear kids talking about these issues openly, it’s a proud moment for us. In Nepal, we need to start changing mindsets around the superstitions surrounding menstruation – and I think we’re doing a great job so far,” Samikshya said.
Discrimination based on caste
Discrimination based on work and descent (also referred as caste discrimination) is widespread across Asia and Africa, affecting over 260 million people, including those in the diaspora. Owing to their birth identity, people from these communities are socially excluded, economically deprived and subjected to physical and psychological abuse. Discrimination based on work and descent is deeply rooted in society, it manifests itself in everyday lives, in individual perceptions to culture and customs, in social and economic structures, in education and employment, and in access to services, opportunities, resources and the market. Discrimination is perpetuated from generation to generation, and is in some cases deeply internalized, despite the existence in some countries of laws and affirmative action to tackle it. Amnesty International is committed to work in tandem with partners in advocating for the rights of communities affected on the basis of work and descent.
Discrimination based on disability
As many as 1 in 10 people around the world lives with a disability. Yet in many societies, people with disabilities must grapple with stigma, being ostracized and treated as objects of pity or fear.
Developing countries are home to about 80% of people with disabilities. The overwhelming majority of people with disabilities – 82%– live below the poverty line. Women with disabilities are two to three times more likely to encounter physical and sexual abuse than women without disabilities.
In Kazakhstan, current laws mean that thousands of people with psychosocial and intellectual disabilities have been declared “incapable” by law and put in the care of a guardian. Under this system they cannot exercise their rights and are not able to challenge the decision in court.
Amnesty International has also documented serious human rights abuses suffered by people with disabilities in Somalia, where they are at risk of forced marriage, rape and forced evictions.
Case study: Fighting to improve accessibility in Kyrgyzstan
In Kyrgyzstan where persons with disabilities are often labelled as “invalids” and “diseased”, Gulzar keeps on fighting for her dignity.
Gulzar Duishenova is a Kyrgyzstani woman who lost the use of her legs in a traffic accident. She now uses a wheelchair, but lives in a society where persons with disabilities face daily discrimination. One of these forms of discrimination is accessibility; from going to the doctor, to getting on public transport.
But Gulzar is fighting to change this. She has made it her life’s mission to ensure that persons with disabilities can live in dignity. The accessibility issues she faces have only strengthened her resolve to demand a better life for herself and others.
We are told that we are not allowed to talk- but we still do. I still talk
Gulzar Duishenova
After years of campaigning by activists like Gulzar, in March 2019 Kyrgyzstani President Sooronbay Jeenbekov signed into law the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which paves the road to the effective inclusion of 180,000 people living with disabilities in the social and economic life of Kyrgyzstan.
“If people with disabilities and older people live well, the whole of society lives well. I also want to say it loud and clear that nothing about us should be done without us,” says Gulzar.
THE SOLUTION: WHAT IS AMNESTY CALLING FOR?
Governments to:
Get rid of discriminatory laws and release anyone who is in prison because of them.
Protect everyone – whoever they are – from discrimination and violence.
Introduce laws and policies that promote inclusion and diversity in all aspects of society.
Take action to tackle the root causes of discrimination, including by challenging stereotypes and attitudes that underpin discrimination.
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How people globally see racial, ethnic discrimination in the U.S. | Pew Research Center
How people globally see racial, ethnic discrimination in the U.S. | Pew Research Center
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November 2, 2021
More people globally see racial, ethnic discrimination as a serious problem in the U.S. than in their own societyBy Laura Silver
Concerns about racial and ethnic discrimination are widespread in most of the 17 advanced economies surveyed by Pew Research Center this spring. Majorities of adults in 14 of these places say discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity is a somewhat or very serious problem in their own society – including around three-quarters or more in Italy, France, Sweden, Germany and the United States. Only in Japan, Singapore and Taiwan do fewer than half say such discrimination is a serious problem.
How we did this
This Pew Research Center analysis focuses on comparing attitudes about whether racial and ethnic discrimination is a problem within a given survey public and whether it is a problem in the United States. For non-U.S. data, this post draws on nationally representative surveys of 16,254 adults from March 12 to May 26, 2021, in 16 advanced economies. All surveys were conducted over the phone with adults in Canada, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan.
In the U.S., we surveyed 2,596 adults from Feb. 1 to 7, 2021. Everyone who took part in the U.S. survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories.
This study was conducted in places where nationally representative telephone surveys are feasible. Due to the coronavirus outbreak, face-to-face interviewing is not currently possible in many parts of the world.
Here are the questions used for this analysis, along with responses. Visit our methodology database for more information about the survey methods outside the U.S. For respondents in the U.S., read more about the ATP’s methodology.
But even as sizable majorities in these places see racial and ethnic discrimination as a serious problem, even bigger majorities see it as an issue in the U.S. A median of 89% across the 16 non-U.S. publics surveyed describe racial and ethnic discrimination in the U.S. as a somewhat or very serious problem. That includes at least nine-in-ten who take this position in New Zealand, South Korea, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.
Across most of the places surveyed, younger adults tend to be more likely than older people to see discrimination as a problem, whether in their own society or in the U.S. For example, among Spaniards, 69% of those under age 30 think racial and ethnic discrimination in their own society is a serious problem, compared with 44% of those ages 65 and older. Younger Spaniards are also more likely than older Spaniards to see discrimination in the U.S. as a serious problem – though age-related differences in opinion about American discrimination are less pronounced, both in Spain and elsewhere.
Women in most of the advanced economies surveyed tend to see discrimination at higher rates than men. In the U.S., for example, 80% of women say discrimination against people based on their race or ethnicity is a somewhat or very serious problem, compared with 68% of men. Gender differences of around 10 percentage points are also evident in Canada, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, New Zealand and South Korea, both when it comes to discrimination locally and in the U.S. (though differences for the U.S. are again less pronounced).
In many places surveyed, those on the ideological left are more likely than those on the right to see racial and ethnic discrimination as a serious problem, both in their own society and in the U.S. The ideological gap on this question is widest in the U.S. itself: 92% of those on the left (liberals, in common U.S. parlance) say racial and ethnic discrimination is a serious problem, compared with 47% of those on the right (conservatives), a difference of 45 points. The next-largest ideological gap is in Australia, where 80% of those on the left and 50% of those on the right hold the view that discrimination is a serious problem in Australia. In general, people on the ideological left are also more likely than those on the right to say discrimination in the U.S. is a serious problem.
Attitudes sometimes also differ by educational level, especially when it comes to discrimination in the U.S. In Taiwan, for example, 95% of those with at least a postsecondary degree describe discrimination as a serious problem in the U.S., compared with 77% of those with less than a postsecondary degree. On the other hand, when it comes to perceptions of domestic discrimination, education only plays a role in Singapore, Japan and South Korea, with more educated people more likely to cite discrimination as a serious problem.
Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis, along with responses. Visit our methodology database for more information about the survey methods outside the U.S. For respondents in the U.S., read more about the ATP’s methodology.
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Opportunities to tackle structural racism and ethnicity-based discrimination in recovering and rebuilding from the COVID-19 pandemic | Nature Communications
Opportunities to tackle structural racism and ethnicity-based discrimination in recovering and rebuilding from the COVID-19 pandemic | Nature Communications
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Opportunities to tackle structural racism and ethnicity-based discrimination in recovering and rebuilding from the COVID-19 pandemic
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Published: 14 June 2022
Opportunities to tackle structural racism and ethnicity-based discrimination in recovering and rebuilding from the COVID-19 pandemic
Natalia Linos1, Mary T. Bassett1, Alejandra Salemi1, Margareta Matache1, Konstantinos Tararas
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1687-97802, Rodney Kort
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7587-93023, Susana Gomez
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0030-63283, Michela Zaghi2, Rosemary Lane4, Brianna Harrison5, Karin Lucke6, Gianna Sanchez
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3330-86027, Anne Althaus
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6133-857X7, Mirna P. Amaya
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5548-67443 & …Theadora Swift Koller
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5655-76903 Show authors
Nature Communications
volume 13, Article number: 3277 (2022)
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The impact of COVID-19 has been disproportionately felt by populations experiencing structural racial- and ethnicity-based discrimination. Here, we describe opportunities for COVID-19 response and recovery efforts to help build more equal and resilient societies, through investments in: (i) interventions focused on explicitly addressing racial and ethnicity-based discrimination; (ii) interventions supporting the delivery of universal services, and in ways that address compounding and intersecting drivers of exclusion and marginalization; and (iii) cross-cutting enabling measures, such as participatory mechanisms and data disaggregation.
More than two years since the first SARS-CoV-2 infections were reported, the COVID-19 pandemic remains an acute global emergency1. While many countries have successfully vaccinated significant portions of their populations, stark global inequities remain with imbalance in the global distribution of vaccines2,3, and potential new variants could further threaten the ability of governments to recover from the inter-connected health, economic, and broader human rights crises. Within countries, the impact of COVID-19 has been disproportionately felt by populations experiencing structural racial- and ethnicity-based discrimination. Indeed, where disaggregated epidemiologic data are available, COVID-19 morbidity and mortality rates are often significantly higher among people of African descent, indigenous peoples, and ethnic groups or other minoritized groups experiencing discrimination4,5,6. This reflects what social epidemiologists have long recognized: disease distribution is patterned by structures of disadvantage, inequality, marginalization and discrimination that often have historical roots and still have present-day manifestations7. Importantly, “race” is purely a social construct that has no biological basis, and documented racial inequities are due to racism not genetics or biology.Ethnicity-based and racial discrimination intersects with other forms of exclusion based on income, occupation, gender identity and expression, sexual orientation, disability, religion or belief, language, migratory status, rural/urban status and more, and is unlikely to exist in only one sector. Beyond health inequities, COVID-19 racial and ethnicity-based inequities have been documented across employment, education, housing and food insecurity, among other domains8. There are different pathways – from differential exposure, to inequitable access to health services, to uneven socioeconomic impacts of control measures, that can be further studied to inform policymaking, planning and programming9. Yet, these unequal impacts and human rights violations are not inevitable; neither is a spike in xenophobia and hate speech10.As countries work to respond to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and address both health challenges and broader socio-economic impacts, attention must be given to tackling racial and ethnic discrimination. With this in mind, and consistent with the UN Secretary General’s Call to Action for Human Rights11, members of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group released a report on opportunities to address racial- and ethnicity-based discrimination12.The report was developed through a consultative process that began in late 2020 through early 2021, involving UN senior executives and technical staff, civil society, public health practitioners and human rights experts. It identified three strategic approaches to addressing racial and ethnicity-based discrimination in COVID-19 response and recovery efforts. These are: (i) interventions explicitly tackling racial and ethnicity-based discrimination, including improving anti-discrimination and redress mechanisms; (ii) interventions supporting the delivery of universal services, but in ways that address compounding and intersecting drivers of social exclusion and draw on the framework of proportionate universalism13; and (iii) investments in cross-cutting enabling measures, such as participatory mechanisms and data disaggregation (see Table 1 which is replicated from the report).Table 1 Summary of potential entry points to address racial- and ethnicity-based discrimination, replicated from UN report.Full size tableWhile not exhaustive and recognizing that entry-points would need to be tailored to national circumstances and developed in consultation with impacted communities, these mutually reinforcing entry-points together offer a framework to address discrimination directly through targeted measures, and indirectly through universal measures that will have amplified impacts on disadvantaged populations. This framework is currently being used in a capacity-building programme for United Nations Country Teams to support national policies and programmes that result in more just, equal and resilient societies. To date, thirteen UN Country Teams have participated in the programme and a training-of-trainers is planned for late 2022 to reach more, under the umbrella of the UN Network on addressing Racial Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities.Explicitly tackle racial and ethnicity-based discriminationCOVID-19 made clear that there is a need for explicit policies to tackle racial and ethnicity-based discrimination in the immediate term, to address current pressing needs, and in the long term. The longstanding impact of colonialism, theft of land, resources and exclusionary actions, for example, left indigenous peoples more vulnerable to COVID-19. Indigenous peoples already faced numerous obstacles to equitably accessing health services, including because of geographical barriers posed by the organization of provider networks, difficulty affording medical care, or difficulties in accessing culturally appropriate care that is in their own language and that respects their cultural beliefs, traditions and practices14. During the COVID-19 pandemic the world also witnessed a rise in episodes of xenophobia, hate speech, abuses, assaults, harassment, scapegoating, stigmatization and increase in excessive immigration control measures15.Countries can use this opportunity of heightened sensitivity to health inequities to adopt or strengthen existing anti-discrimination laws and policies that align with international human rights standards. These should extend beyond health care to address discrimination in the workplace, housing, education, law enforcement and border control sectors, among others. States must meet their obligations to respect, protect and fulfill the rights of everyone guaranteed under the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination by, for example, equipping existing autonomous national institutions to guarantee protection, effective implementation of anti-discrimination laws and policies, and access to justice for individual or collective complaints.Accurate communications and public messages centered on solidarity, tolerance, and inclusion are needed to combat scapegoating, ‘othering’ or victim-blaming narratives that continue to exacerbate harm. Just as with past epidemics which have often resulted in human rights abuses and discriminatory enforcement of public health measures, as well as segregationist public health strategies16, concerns were raised around emergency measures inappropriately targeting groups, including migrants, refugees and asylum seekers, and the excessive and selective use of police and military for enforcement17. For example, longstanding anti-Roma racism in Europe, including violent and targeted oppression over centuries, resurfaced through inflammatory rhetoric and scapegoating during COVID-1918.Addressing compounding and intersecting drivers of exclusionCOVID-19 made inequities experienced by persons facing ethnicity-based and racial discrimination more visible, but unfair and discriminatory practices in education, housing, labor markets, the criminal justice system, to name a few, are often overlapping and compounding, and did not emerge simply as a result of the pandemic. Universal and rights-based strategies such as temporary moratoria on evictions19, expanded social protection nets, enhanced labor protections including for workers in the informal economy, expansion of free Wi-Fi and open education resources, release and decarceration efforts – among other measures – can have a differential positive impact on populations experiencing racial and ethnicity-based discrimination. This is because structural racism acts to skew distributions such that excluded and marginalized groups are over-represented among those working in the informal economy, those facing housing insecurity, those deprived of education, those living in poverty and those facing obstacles to justice. An intersectional analysis to comprehensively address the multiple and overlapping structural drivers of inequality, for example with regards to gender identity, religion, ableness, or citizenship status, in addition to race and ethnicity, is essential in COVID-19 recovery plans.Place-based strategies20, including neighborhood and community-based interventions, can similarly help mitigate the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 in geographic regions that have historically been underserved and contain large numbers of people that may have experienced racial and ethnicity-based discrimination. For example, investments in infrastructure, including health infrastructure, can help to ensure basic minimum needs for shelter, health, water, sanitation and hygiene are being met during and following the pandemic, while also generating employment opportunities in the immediate term for residents of underserved areas.Invest in enabling and human rights-based approachesAlthough there are both direct and indirect strategies through which plans to build forward better from the COVID-19 pandemic can begin to address structural racism and ethnicity-based discrimination, as described above, these actions will only be successful if they address power inequities and are developed through participatory and inclusive approaches, ensuring historically excluded communities have decision-making power and adequate resources. COVID-19 response and recovery plans could earmark resources for civil society organizations working to address discrimination, social exclusion and human rights.In the immediate term, investments in systems to disaggregate data by race and/or ethnicity, as well as other dimensions that can help address the intersectional impact on particular groups, are needed. It is essential that these are accompanied by investments in data protection. These investments and other equity analysis tools can help unpack inequalities across groups both as a direct result of COVID-19 and because of unevenly distributed impacts of pandemic-related measures and uneven socioeconomic consequences. Importantly, mechanisms for transparent data reporting that allow for public accountability will be critical. In many contexts, investment in vital statistics and civil registration will also be needed, since the pandemic highlighted that many people in need of emergency social protection were unable to access benefits because they lacked proper identification21. Similarly, efforts should be made to ensure that the needs of those with precarious legal identity status are also met.ConclusionInequalities in who gets sick and who suffers long-term socioeconomic consequences during and following a pandemic are largely shaped by unequal political power dynamics and how societies structure their economies, laws and policies and broader governance mechanisms. This tragic pandemic has further shone the light on grave and historic injustices and inequalities, both within and across countries, and should be an impetus for countries to strengthen their efforts to address systemic racism and ethnicity-based discrimination. Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic also include the importance of prevention and the high cost of inaction. Parallels can easily be drawn around the need for urgent and concerted action to address the climate emergency if we are to prevent the unnecessary and unequal health impact of climate change22. This opportunity should not be wasted.
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PubMed Google ScholarContributionsN.L. took the lead in framing and drafting the article with text contributions and critical feedback from M.T.B. and T.S.K. and coordination support from S.G. and A.S. The recommendations presented stem from the Frontier Dialogue consultations which were conceptualized and overseen by T.S.K. and K.T., and analysis undertaken in drafting the FD final report developed jointly with M.T.B., N.L., A.S. with technical orientations and text contributions from a dedicated steering group involving also S.G., R.K., M.Z., R.L., B.H., K.L., G.S., A.A., M.M. and M.A.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
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For equality, respect and dignity we must ‘speak as one’ against racism: Guterres | UN News
For equality, respect and dignity we must ‘speak as one’ against racism: Guterres | UN News
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For equality, respect and dignity we must ‘speak as one’ against racism: Guterres
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For equality, respect and dignity we must ‘speak as one’ against racism: Guterres
18 March 2022
Human RightsRacism continues to poison institutions, social structures, and everyday life across all societies, the UN chief said on Friday at a dedicated meeting against what he referred to as a catalyst that “normalizes hate, denies dignity, and spurs violence”.
“It continues to be a driver of persistent inequality…to deny people their fundamental human rights”, added Secretary-General António Guterres in an address to the General Assembly, marking the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
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Racism continues to poison institutions, social structures & everyday life in every society.Realizing the vision of a world free of racism & racial discrimination demands action every day, at every level, in every society. pic.twitter.com/IK12F99X47
António Guterres, UN Secretary-General
antonioguterres
He argued that racism destabilizes communities worldwide, “undermines democracies, erodes the legitimacy of governments, and stymies an inclusive and sustainable recovery from COVID-19.”
Commemorated annually on 21 March, he described the day as “both a day of recognition and an urgent call to action”.
Unequivocal links
The top UN official drew attention to the links between racism and gender inequality, pointing to overlapping and intersecting discrimination suffered by women of colour and minority groups.
Moreover, he continued, “no country is immune from intolerance, nor free of hate.”
“Africans and people of African descent, Asians and people of Asian descent, minority communities, indigenous peoples, migrants, refugees, and so many others – all continue to confront stigmatization, scapegoating, discrimination, and violence”.
‘Bedrock’ of societies
This year’s theme – “Voices for Action against Racism” – calls on everyone to listen closely, speak out loudly, and act decisively.
“We all have a responsibility to engage in solidarity with movements for equality and human rights everywhere. And we must extend solidarity to everyone fleeing conflict,” said the UN chief, urging the world to “speak out against hate speech – offline and online.”
He upheld the need to defend civic space by protecting free expression and assembly, describing it is “the bedrock of pluralist, peaceful and inclusive societies”.
‘Dismantle discriminatory structures’
Mr. Guterres called for a rights-based social contract “to tackle poverty and exclusion, invest in education, and rebuild trust and social cohesion.”
“We must listen to those experiencing injustice and ensure their concerns and demands are at the centre of efforts to dismantle discriminatory structures,” he insisted.
He made a case for “reparatory justice” to realize racial equality and atone in a substantive way for centuries of enslavement and colonialism.
“Historical injustices manifest themselves in poverty, underdevelopment, marginalization, and social instability for entire communities and countries,” he reminded. “It is time to recognize and repair longstanding wrongs”.
It is time to recognize and repair longstanding wrongs -- UN chief
Repairing the past
A just future, requires mending a discriminatory past, in line with international human rights obligations and commitments, he said.
The UN chief encouraged States to accelerate racial justice and equality through the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Agenda Towards Transformative Change for Racial Justice and Equality; and the UN’s Permanent Forum of People of African Descent.
He called for concrete action through policies, legislation, and “more granular data collection” to support efforts at national and global levels.
The UN has launched its own internal strategic action plan on addressing racism, he reminded, that outlines concrete measures to tackle racism in the workplace through accountability – for which a Special Adviser and Steering Group are due to be appointed.
“Together, we are committed to making sure people of every race, ethnicity, colour, gender, religion, creed and sexual orientation, enjoy a sense of belonging and safety, and have an equal opportunity to contribute to the success of our United Nations,” he stated
Action every day, at every level, in every society is demanded to achieve a world free of racism and racial discrimination.
“Let us unite around our common humanity and speak as one for equality, respect, justice and dignity for all,” concluded the UN chief.
Paying tribute to Ukraine
Hosting the event, General Assembly President Abdulla Shahid, began by expressing his “deepest concerns” over the violence waged against civilians, and particularly women and girls, in Ukraine.
As families continue to seek refuge and security in new locations, he said, “our thoughts are with the people of Ukraine.”
A goal not realized
Since the day was established more than half a century ago, the elimination of racial discrimination has continued to elude us, Mr. Shahid reminded the participants.
Despite that the International Convention has reached near universal ratification, he observed, “we continue to see an increase in hate speech, intolerance, and racism, especially against minorities.”
“Our moral failure to eliminate racial discrimination is a failure against everything we stand for in the Hall of this Assembly”, he declared.
‘Overt stereotyping’
The Assembly President drew attention to the long-lasting consequences of racial discrimination, noting that the COVID pandemic has served to exacerbate underlying and long-standing inequalities that plague societies at large, including racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and other forms of intolerance.
Many marginalized and vulnerable people have lost decades of precious gains, especially in their social, economic, civil, and political lives, he said.
We have a moral obligation to tackle racism in all its forms -- UN Assembly President
“Let me be clear: Racial discrimination is an overt stereotyping and prejudice that arises from hate speech and hate propaganda,” Mr. Shahid spelled out.
A moral obligation
Rather than acknowledging the beauty of diversity, he maintained that racism gives birth to violence and strengthens inequalities.
“We can and we must do better,” said the Assembly president. “We have a moral obligation to tackle racism in all its forms.”
Going forward, he encouraged national governments, civil society organizations, and the private sector to “work together to eliminate racial discrimination.”
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Eliminating Racial Discrimination: The Challenges of Prevention and Enforcement of Prohibition | United Nations
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Eliminating Racial Discrimination: The Challenges of Prevention and Enforcement of Prohibition
About the author
Alex Otieno
Alex Otieno teaches in the Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice and the MA Program in International Peace and Conflict Resolution at Arcadia University in Pennsylvania, United States. His research interests are in human rights discourses, HIV/AIDS and society, and the role of institutions in social change.
"States Parties undertake to prohibit and to eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone, without distinction as to race, colour or national or ethnic origin, to equality before the law", according to the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, notably in the enjoyment of political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. State Parties shall also assure effective protection and remedies against any acts of racial discrimination.Both the preamble of the Charter of the United Nations and the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaim the right of everyone to enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms, without distinction to race, colour or national origin. The UN system and its specialized agencies, through various conventions and declarations, prohibited discrimination and disseminated information specifically addressing the issue and proposing solutions to the problem. However, despite these efforts, many individuals and groups belonging to the minority continue to experience various forms of discrimination, especially in countries with a dominant majority or a history of colonialism and occupation. As we prepare to celebrate the anniversaries of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the General Assembly's adoption of the International Convention, prevention and enforcement of United Nations guidelines pertaining to racial discrimination are still a major challenge. As such, human rights for all are still violated in polities where racial discrimination persists.Manifestation of racial discrimination varies in different contexts. For example, in countries like the United States, which have enacted prevention laws, changes in social norms have led some commentators to use phrases like "colour-blind racism"1 and "laissez-faire racism"2 to capture the challenges of preventing racial discrimination and enforcing laws. Racial discrimination is manifested also in practices generally thought to be relics of the past, such as race-based slavery, as in the case of the continuing enslavement of dark skinned people in contemporary Mauritania,3 as well as crimes against humanity or, as argued by some, the genocide committed in the Darfur region of the Sudan.UN agencies, such as the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), have played a key role in organizing and mobilizing education and information relevant to the protection of all human rights. The OHCHR role in the 2001 World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, held in Durban, South Africa, is an example, where the discourses arising from the event and the participation of thousands of non-governmental organizations, youth groups and networks had an impact on millions of people. The contribution of UNESCO in formulating declarations and conventions -- such as the Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution to the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War, adopted on 22 November 1978 -- reveals the United Nations role in fostering discourses of respect and dignity for all.Specifically, Article 12 of the Declaration on the Prevention of Genocide, adopted on 11 March 2005 by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), "urges the international community to look at the need for a comprehensive understanding of the dimensions of genocide, including in the context of situations where economic globalization adversely affects disadvantaged communities, in particular indigenous peoples". This clearly indicates the recognition of the complex factors in facilitating discriminatory practices leading to genocide. It is worth noting that, whereas genocide is not always directly linked to racial discrimination, they are often interlinked, as demonstrated by the 2005 Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the Secretary-General.4 The Commission observed that genocide is often facilitated and supported by discriminatory laws and practices, or lack of effective enforcement of the principle of equality of persons, irrespective of race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin. Given that the Convention calls on States to prohibit racial discrimination and enact laws to protect citizens, it is clear that genocidal activities can be linked to the Government's violations of human rights.The Government of Sudan can, therefore, be held accountable for the estimated 1.65 million internally displaced persons in Darfur and the more than 200,000 refugees from Darfur in neighbouring Chad, especially since it was reported by the Commission of Inquiry that "the Government of the Sudan and the Janjaweed are responsible for serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law amounting to crimes under international law". It also reported: "Government forces and militias conducted indiscriminate attacks, including killing of civilians, torture, enforced disappearances, destruction of villages, rape and other forms of sexual violence, pillaging and forced displacement, throughout Darfur. These acts were conducted on a widespread and systematic basis, and therefore may amount to crimes against humanity. The extensive destruction and displacement have resulted in a loss of livelihood and means of survival for countless women, men and children. In addition to the large scale attacks, many people have been arrested and detained, and many have been held incommunicado for prolonged periods and tortured. The vast majority of the victims of all of these violations have been from the Fur, Zaghawa, Massalit, Jebel, Aranga and other so-called 'African' tribes."This indicates the United Nations role in establishing the nature and extent of the problem in Darfur and its ability to demonstrate that this was borne out of racial discrimination, showing that it is an ongoing problem that needs the attention of the global community and civil society groups.Exploring the importance of preventing and enforcing the prohibition of racial discrimination, as mandated by various UN instruments, can reveal the challenges of addressing persistent racial discrimination four decades after the Convention was adopted. Using the work of two authors, I shall illustrate here the social construction of race as means of generating discussions on racial discrimination and exposing racism as facile thinking. Consider "essentialist" formulation of race that views it as "a matter of innate characteristics, of which skin colour and other physical attributes provide only the most obvious and, in some respects, most superficial, indicators"5 and is, at least in part, the basis for enslavement in Mauritania today. The other extreme view is trivializing the category of race, arguing that since it is a social construction, race will disappear if we simply ignore it -- this ignores the ways in which race has deeply structured Western civilization for the last 500 years.It is important to consider the social construction of race in light of B. K. Obach's work detailing student responses to a course on racism.6 He observed that in the context of the United States, "students often think of race as a given biological fact based on established scientific distinctions, ideas that are strongly reified throughout society by the media, through government policy and by individuals who often embrace a racial identity". Challenging students to "think outside the box" by considering the origin of race as social is no doubt a mammoth task, but one that can be accomplished with tenacity and good pedagogy. A strategy offered by Obach is to acknowledge that the "socially constructed nature of racial categories can, in part, be demonstrated by reviewing historical developments in which the commonly used racial categories were established, in addition to showing the way in which those categories and their meanings have changed over time". He substantiated his work with Omi & Winnant,5 as well as Haney Lopez,7 to illustrate this. He noted the definition of Asian Indians as a case in point, observing that they "were determined by the courts to be non-white in 1909, white in 1910 and 1913, non-white in 1917, white again in 1919 and 1920, but non-white after 1923". Such conceptions can go a long way in exposing the fact that social relations, rather than some innate qualities, produce the hierarchical ideas regarding race.It can be argued that UN efforts at improving response strategies for tackling racial discrimination markedly improved following the paradigm shift towards a more inclusive and proactive one, "taking into account that systematic discrimination, disregard or exclusion are often among the root causes of conflict". In the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, CERD noted the importance of decision-making in strengthening the capacity of the Committee "to detect and prevent at the earliest possible stage developments in racial discrimination that may lead to violent conflict and genocide". Thus, the Convention seeks to frame prevention as a critical component of efforts to address racial discrimination and genocide.Although national actions for tackling racial discrimination and exclusion may exist, there is often an inadequate capacity to prevent cases of discrimination within the jurisdiction of the States with the worst track records. However, education and human rights as the main strategies by civil society organizations, which mobilize action and raise concerns regarding discrimination, can have an impact on both prevention and enforcement. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the "best practices" of institutional processes and models of race that are transformative and do not further marginalize racial minorities. This is best done by treating their experiences in ways that do not consider the role they must play in reporting instances of violation of their dignity.The international community must now take heed of the complexity of the politics of race and how it fuels human rights abuses, including genocidal acts and crimes against humanity, such as those witnessed in Darfur and the slavery in Mauritania. What is clear is that, although there is ample evidence of the consequences of racial discrimination in opportunity structures, including political and cultural products, health outcomes, well-being and dignity, concrete actions to address "hidden abuses" remain inadequate.It will take effective leadership within the various UN specialized agencies to prevent racial discrimination and bring to account groups and individuals responsible for human rights violations. Previous criticisms of the handling of situations that resulted in colossal rights abuses,8 such as those in Rwanda in 1994, should serve to motivate key individuals to recognize the need for prompt action. As The New York Times in March 2007 has noted regarding Darfur, "international leaders need to demonstrate that they can act as well as talk", in order to save lives and bolster confidence in the international system.Notes 1 E. Bonilla-Silva & T.A. Forman, "I am not a racist but...": Mapping white college students' racial ideology in the USA. Discourse & Society 11 (2002): 50-85.K. Bales, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000).2 L. Bobo, J. Kluegel & R. Smith. "Laissez-faire Racism: The Crystallization of a Kinder, Gentler, Antiblack Ideology",Racial Attitudes in the 1990s, ed. S. Tuch and J.K. Martin . (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1997) 15-42.3 K. Bales & J. Reitz, Racism, Racial Discrimination and Related Intolerance Relating To Contemporary Forms of Slavery. (Background paper prepared by Free the Slaves, Washington D.C., 2003).4 Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur. http://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf5 M. Omi & H. Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s (New York: Routledge, 1994).6 B.K. Obach, "Demonstrating the social construction of race", Teaching Sociology, 27.3 (1999): 252-57.7 I.F. Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).8 S. Power, "Bystanders to genocide", The Atlantic Monthly, September 2001.
The UN Chronicle is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
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